This study aims to identify novel small-molecule inhibitors capable of dual targeting of PD-L1 and tubulin, intending to enhance cancer immunotherapy.
A combination of computer-aided virtual screening, molecular docking, homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) assays, tubulin polymerization inhibition assays, and in vivo antitumor assays was utilized to identify compounds with dual-targeting potential.
Compound PP-1 exhibited moderate inhibitory activity against the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction (IC50 = 81.1 µM) and showed dose-dependent inhibition of tubulin polymerization (IC50 = 70.1 µM). Molecular docking analysis further confirmed that PP-1 can effectively bind to both PD-L1 and tubulin at the molecular level, supporting its bifunctional targeting capability. Importantly, compound PP-1 (50 mg/kg, P.O.) demonstrated significant antitumor efficacy in a melanoma model, achieving a tumor growth inhibition rate of 42% without apparent systemic toxicity.
PP-1 demonstrates dual-target inhibitory activity against both the PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint and tubulin polymerization, underscoring its potential as a promising lead compound for the development of next-generation dual-functional anticancer agents.
Copyright © 2026 Zhou, Ding, An, Wang, He, Du, Su and Yao.

Current PD-L1 degraders, whether antibody-based or small-molecule-mediated, are hindered by limitations in pharmacokinetics (e.g., poor tissue penetration) or pharmacodynamics (e.g., suboptimal degradation efficacy, immunogenicity concerns). These drawbacks highlight the necessity for novel PD-L1 degradation platforms using innovative technologies.
This study aims to design and synthesize bifunctional small molecules as PD-L1 degraders by leveraging the unexplored E3 ligase SPOP, aiming to overcome the limitations of existing degraders and evaluate their potential in cancer immunotherapy.
A series of SPOP-based bifunctional small molecules were designed and synthesized. Their PD-L1 inhibitory and degradation activities were assessed using HTRF and western blot assays, respectively. Mechanistic studies (His pull-down, bio-layer interferometry, western blot) were performed to verify ternary complex formation with PD-L1 and SPOP. In vivo pharmacokinetic properties and antitumor efficacy were evaluated in a B16-F10 tumor model, with analysis of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) to explore immune microenvironment effects.
Compound SPOP9 exhibited potent PD-L1 inhibition (IC50 = 357.2 nM) and degradation (DC50 = 1.0 μM). Mechanistic studies confirmed its assembly into a stable ternary complex with PD-L1 and SPOP. SPOP9 showed favorable in vivo bioavailability (F = 74.8 %) and, at 10 mg/kg (i.p.), reduced tumor weight by 44 % in B16-F10 mice, superior to anti-PD-L1 antibody (TGI = 34.4 %). TIL analysis indicated SPOP9 activated the tumor immune microenvironment and downregulated PD-L1.
SPOP9, as the first SPOP-binding bifunctional PD-L1 degrader, demonstrates promising preclinical efficacy and pharmacokinetic properties, addressing key limitations of existing degraders. It merits further investigation as a potential agent for cancer immunotherapy.
Copyright © 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Surviving beta cells in type 1 diabetes respond to inflammation by upregulating programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) to engage immune cell programmed death protein 1 (PD-1) and limit destruction by self-reactive immune cells. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and their cargo can serve as biomarkers of beta cell health and contribute to islet intercellular communication. We hypothesised that the inflammatory milieu of type 1 diabetes increases PD-L1 in beta cell EV cargo and that EV PD-L1 may protect beta cells against immune-mediated cell death.
Beta cell lines and human islets were treated with proinflammatory cytokines to model the proinflammatory type 1 diabetes microenvironment. EVs were isolated using ultracentrifugation or size exclusion chromatography and analysed via immunoblot, flow cytometry and ELISA. EV PD-L1 binding to PD-1 was assessed using a competitive binding assay and in vitro functional assays testing the ability of EV PD-L1 to inhibit NOD CD8+ T cells. Plasma EV and soluble PD-L1 were assayed in the plasma of islet autoantibody-positive (Ab+) individuals or individuals with recent-onset type 1 diabetes and compared with levels in non-diabetic control individuals.
PD-L1 protein co-localised with tetraspanin-associated proteins intracellularly and was detected on the surface of beta cell EVs. Treatment with IFN-α or IFN-γ for 24 h induced a twofold increase in EV PD-L1 cargo without a corresponding increase in the number of EVs. IFN exposure predominantly increased PD-L1 expression on the surface of beta cell EVs and beta cell EV PD-L1 showed a dose-dependent capacity to bind PD-1. Functional experiments demonstrated specific effects of beta cell EV PD-L1 to suppress proliferation and cytotoxicity of murine CD8+ T cells. Plasma EV PD-L1 levels were increased in Ab+individuals, particularly in those positive for a single autoantibody. Additionally, in Ab+ individuals or those who had type 1 diabetes, but not in control individuals, plasma EV PD-L1 positively correlated with circulating C-peptide, suggesting that higher EV PD-L1 could be protective for residual beta cell function.
IFN exposure increases PD-L1 on the beta cell EV surface. Beta cell EV PD-L1 binds PD1 and inhibits CD8+ T cell proliferation and cytotoxicity. Circulating EV PD-L1 is higher in Ab+ individuals than in control individuals. Circulating EV PD-L1 levels correlate with residual C-peptide at different stages in type 1 diabetes progression. These findings suggest that EV PD-L1 could contribute to heterogeneity in type 1 diabetes progression and residual beta cell function and raise the possibility that EV PD-L1 could be exploited as a means to inhibit immune-mediated beta cell death.
© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.

Miniproteins constitute an excellent basis for the development of structurally demanding functional molecules. The engrailed homeodomain, a three-helix-containing miniprotein, was applied as a scaffold for constructing programmed cell death protein 1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) interaction inhibitors. PD-L1 binders were initially designed using the computer-aided approach and subsequently optimized iteratively. The conformational stability was assessed for each obtained miniprotein using circular dichroism spectroscopy, indicating that numerous mutations could be introduced. The formation of a sizable hydrophobic surface at the inhibitor that fits the molecular target imposed the necessity for the incorporation of additional charged amino acid residues to retain its appropriate solubility. Finally, the miniprotein effectively binding to PD-L1 (KD = 51.4 nM) that inhibits PD-1/PD-L1 interaction in cell-based studies with EC50 = 3.9 μM, was discovered.
© 2024 The Protein Society.

A substantial portion of patients do not benefit from programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death 1 ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) checkpoint inhibition therapies, necessitating a deeper understanding of predictive biomarkers. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) has played a pivotal role in assessing PD-L1 expression, but small-molecule positron emission tomography (PET) tracers could offer a promising avenue to address IHC-associated limitations, i.e., invasiveness and PD-L1 expression heterogeneity. PET tracers would allow for improved quantification of PD-L1 through noninvasive whole-body imaging, thereby enhancing patient stratification. Here, a large series of PD-L1 targeting small molecules were synthesized, leveraging advantageous substructures to achieve exceptionally low nanomolar affinities. Compound 5c emerged as a promising candidate (IC50 = 10.2 nM) and underwent successful carbon-11 radiolabeling. However, a lack of in vivo tracer uptake in xenografts and notable accumulation in excretory organs was observed, underscoring the challenges encountered in small-molecule PD-L1 PET tracer development. The findings, including structure-activity relationships and in vivo biodistribution data, stand to illuminate the path forward for refining small-molecule PD-L1 PET tracers.